A little history…and lots of stories by Gérard
Boulad
‘‘Our
ancestors, the Phoenicians…’’ The
modern young Lebanese is not nourished from his earliest
school days with his relations to a historic past
in other climes, is repeated almost like a nursery
rhyme. He is not insular for a quite simple reason
- so many civilizations have succeeded one another
in his country that he comes to regard himself firstly
as a Mediterranean, secondly as a citizen of the world,
but as a Lebanese all the same. Lebanon always has
been a hospitable country - some times willingly and
some times unwillingly – from the most ancient
times, while still retaining those special virtues
which are still to be found today among its citizens
without the necessity of looking far for them.
The oldest traces of civilization go back to the Neolithic
and Aeneolithic era, as was established by the archaeologist
Maurice Dunand at Byblos. But it is generally accepted
that the ‘‘historical’’ period
of Lebanon : dates back to the fourth millennium before
Christ with the inhabitants of Cana - a group of people
of different races who lived on the eastern coast
of the Mediterranean and who produced the Phoenicians,
the first well-defined ethnic entity known in history.
The Phoenicians established along the coast a series
of independent kingdoms and trading stations –
oligarchic republics - which extended from Ruad (Arados)
in the North to Askalon in the South and included
Bothrys (Batrun), Byblos (Jbeil), Berytos (Beirut),
Sidon (Saida), Tyre and sebaste (Caesarea).
Such a practical alphabet!
The Phoenicians, who were great traders and navigators,
would appear to have been above all very practical
people and peerless adaptors. Whether by instinct
or geographical necessity or both, the Phoenician
was industrious, with a good eye for business with
neighboring countries (particularly Egypt, which bought
from him cedar wood, the purple made from murex, spices
and fabrics), ready to accept new ideas, to accept
all sorts of beliefs and divinities – even to
the extent of modifying and appropriating them - and
in short with an open-minded attitude to the world
which is still to be found in his contemporary descendants,
even though the present race is the product of subsequent
invasions. Although acting as a broker of neighboring
countries and in spite of their openness to the civilized
world, they succeed in maintaining a forceful individuality,
which can be noted for the fact that each of their
illustrious cities remains independent and even rivals.
However, their situation is such that they already
formed a confederation and occupied roughly the same
territory as modern Lebanon, a fact which brings grist
to the mill of those who claim that the Lebanese actually
are the descendants of the ancient Phoenicians.
The best example of the Phoenicians’ creativity
and practical sense is their invention of the alphabet.
Should this be attributed to Cadmus or to other scribes
of Byblos? It matter little. The fact is that the
cuneiform system was considered to be too complicated
for trading purposes, so they invented a script consisting
of 22 letters which was subsequently adopted by the
Greeks (Alpha, Beta,…), the Romans and finally
by the whole western world!
The Phoenician hegemony over the east coast of the
Mediterranean had its ups and downs. Invaded by the
Hyksos, and liberated by the Pharaohs whose subjects
they became, and then once more recovering their independence,
the Phoenicians maintained economic sway over the
area until the ninth century B.C., and even passed
through the straits of Gibraltar (the columns of Hercules)
to found colonies on the shores of the Atlantic, which
soon became prosperous, under the driving force of
the navigators of Tyre, who were the pioneers of this
expansionist policy. When, later, the Assyrians, Babylonians
and Persians invaded the area, the Phoenician cities
tried to retain their autonomy by either subjecting
themselves to or allying themselves with the conqueror
but this was already the beginning of their decadence.
And yet, when Tyre, was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar
II in 587 B.C., it held out for thirteen years before
finally submitting! Two hundred and fifty years later,
having insulted Cyrus, it closed its gates against
Alexander the Great, who besieged it for seven months.
Assisted by the Sidonians, he finally managed to invest
the town, massacred the inhabitants and completely
destroyed it. The passing bell for the proud Phoenician
cities sounded over the corpses of Tyre (332 B.C.)
Another ten centuries were to go by until Phoenicia,
now a Roman province under the Pax Romana, regained
a little of its prosperity. The ruins of Baalbek and
the memory of the famous law school at Beirut (Justinian
and Papinian), which had its golden age under the
subsequent domination of Byzantium witness to this.
The Phoenician cities (Tyre, Tripoli and Beirut) then
experienced an unequalled economic and intellectual
development, eclipsing the memories of decadent Hellenism
and of the Syrian Kingdom of Seleucus, which was condemning
them to slow death. However, this development was
interrupted by internecine struggles and ideological
and religious schisms, aggravated by natural disasters
such as the earthquake of 555 A.D., which completely
destroyed Beirut and its Law School and the one which
shook the temples of Baalbek. Weakened from within
by all this strife and with all-conquering Islam attacking
its frontiers, the Byzantine Empire collapsed. Heraclius,
defeated by Khaled Ebn el-Walid at the battle of Yarmuk
(636), abandoned Syria to the Muslims.
The
Arab conquest and the Crusades
For nearly four centuries, under the reign first of
Omayyades and then of Abbassides, Islam was installed
on the eastern basin of the Mediterranean and the
interior, and even spread out over the seas thanks
to the material (wood) and technical (navigation)
assistance of the Christians of the coast –
not yet Lebanese – who were tired of Byzantine
domination. Thus it was that the Byzantine squadron
commanded by Emperor Constant II was destroyed off
coast of Lydia by Muslim naval forces in 655.
The assertion of Arab over lordship imparted a new
kind of development to the coastal cities. Poetry
and literature occupied an important place, as also
did science and medicine, but henceforth they were
expressed in Arabic. The development of the applied
arts, the ceramics industry, glass, textiles and the
crafts generally, were accompanied by a vast expansion
throughout the Arab world of the period. However,
the Abbasside Caliphs were to show themselves less
tolerant than their predecessors, and this gave rise
to a number of revolts such as that of the Mardaites,
later joined by the Maronites (disciples of the pious
Saint Maron, who from the chief nucleus of the present-day
Christian community of Lebanon).
At this period there were a number of schisms within
the Muslim world itself (Shiites, Druzes, Metuallis
and Ismaelians). The Arab empire was divided between
the Abbasside dynasty of Baghdad and Fatimide of Cairo,
and all these rivalries, together with unceasing attacks
by the Byzantians and assaults by the Seleucid Turks,
prepared the ground for the Frankish invasion which
took the from of Crusades (fall of Antioch in 1098).
It is worth noting that it was from this period that
dates the multiplicity of rites and beliefs making
up present-day Lebanon, which bears witness to that
same ardent monotheistic faith in its various aspects.
The following century was marked by series of victories
and reversals on both Frankish and Arab side, the
chief of which were the fall of Jerusalem in 1099,
and those of St John of Acre in 1104, Tripoli in 1109,
Beirut in 1110 (together with Sidon) and Tyre in 1124.
The majority of these towns - except Tyre- were retaken
later by the great Salah el-Dine El Ayyoubi (Saladin),
who put an end to the second Crusade with his Victory
at Hattin (1187). The subsequent Crusades were to
end in failure and the general impoverishment of the
Lebanese coast, unceasingly torn by warfare, and the
majority of the cities were constantly being razed
to the ground, built up again and then destroyed again.
From this troubled epoch there remain remarkable architectural
vestiges – ancient mosques and churches, Frankish
castles and Arab fortresses all along the Lebanese
coast, recalling images of chivalry and faith. But
in spite of the brief periods of peace during which
the East and West got to know each other better –
chiefly to the advantage of the latter – it
would be an exaggeration to state that Lebanon derived
any advantages from the Crusades except the pisturesqueness
of the present-day landscape.
The Ayyubites (descendants of Saladin) were succeeded
by the Mameluks of Turkoman origin, and their domination
over the region was to last for nearly three centuries,
during which time they fought against both the Franks
installed in Cyprus and Cilicia and repeated invasions
by the Mongols. Taking advantages of this situation,
the Shiites and Druzes of the Kesruan revolted against
the Mameluks, but the revolt finished in a blood bath.
Nevertheless, the coastal cities began to experience
a new era of prosperity, for there was an increase
of exchanges with the West at all levels. The age
of the Barbery pirates was succeeded by that of the
filibusters of trade, with Venice and Genoa attempting
to take over the flourishing markets of the East so
as to supply the western hinterland to their profit.
The galleys of Jacques, the infamous money-lender
of Charles VII, dropped anchor at Beirut in 1432,
and this port was henceforth to develop progressively
until the present day. Apart from the trading stations
established in town by the majority of Mediterranean
countries, various consular or semi-consular institutions
were set up their and were at the origin of the privileges
subsequently Known as ‘‘Capitulations’’.
While a beginning was made with the distribution of
land among the communities in mount Lebanon, the Christian
minorities (particularly the Maronites) settled in
the North, the Druzes in the southern part of the
country and at the foot of Mount Hermon the Shiites
to the North of Bekaa and in the Kesruan, while the
Sunnites took over the coast and the immediate hinterland.
Fakhreddine
II and the Sublime Porte
The purely Arab period was followed by the Turkish
period, marked by the fall of Constantinople before
Mohammed the Conqueror (1453), while in 1516 Selim
I crushed the Mameluks with Sultan Ghuri at their
head before Marj Dabek near Aleppo. This was the beginning
of the Ottoman epoch which was to last until the beginning
of the First World War and which enabled Lebanon to
constitute itself as a national entity thanks to the
two Emirs who left a mark on their period –
Fakhreddine II Maan (1572-1635) and Bechir II Chehab(1789-1840)
Without going into detail regarding the relations
between the Sublime Porte and its Lebanese ‘‘province’’,
often to the detriment of the latter, for a period
of four centuries, it should be pointed out that the
division of the country into three administrative
‘‘pashaliks’’ headed by the
Maan Emirs in the Chuf, the Chaym Emirs in the Wadi
Taym and the Al the Yamani Emirs in the Gharb was
due to Selim I. As time went on, the Maan Emirs asserted
their predominance, and the personality of Fakhreddine
II bursts forth as the foremost political leader of
Lebanon, who had the merit of devising and achieving
national unity by means of a carefully studied plan
of campaign, in spite of the opposition of the Court
of Constantinople which was watching his growing power
with a jaundiced eye. like a sort of eastern Louis
XIV, he succeed in achieving national unity in spite
of internecine strife, opened up his country to the
West – particularly Italy, having been exiled
in Tuscancy for five years as the result of an invasion
by the Pasha of Damascus - and prepared the way for
the complete rebirth of his country from the point
of view of culture, trade and town planning. On his
return from exile, he won an important victory over
the troops of the pasha of Damascus at Anjar. However,
this independence was a cause of misgivings at the
Sublime Porte, which decided to get rid of this excessively
dangerous Emir. Fakhreddine, defeated near Niha, surrendered
to the Turks who took him to Constantinople and executed
him with his three children.
Emir Fakhreddine, the great unifier of his country
from his fortress at Deir al-Kamar, is a legendary
figure renowned for his great religious tolerance;
he is revered by his countrymen as the founder of
modern Lebanon, who gave his country a sound administration
and many historical monuments (the famous mosques
of Saida and Beirut, the first printing works to be
set up in the East, and even a zoological garden in
the capital to say nothing of the Florentine and Tuscan
influence which is evident today in Lebanese architecture).
After his death, he was succeeded by other Maan emirs
who were not so brilliant, and dynasty was die out
some sixty years later, giving place to the Shehabs
of Wadi Taym, whose hold over the country was confirmed
by the victory of Emir Haidar at Ain Dara in 1711
over dissident, Turkophile factions.
Even so, the unification of Lebanon had not been completed.
The eighteenth century was marked by a series of internal
conflicts, fomented or maintained by various emirs
and pashas (Damascus, Saida, etc.). There were also
the effects of the Russo- Turkish war, which brought
a squadron commanded by Admiral Alexis Orlof to Beirut.
The city, having been bombarded by the Russians was
occupied by the forces of the Sublime Porte commanded
by a Bosniec by the name of Ahmed el- Jazzar (the
butcher) who tried to live up to his name and was
renowned for his cruelty, exactions and cupidity.
The half-century of the Prince of Beit ed-Dine
This was at the time when Bonaparte, attempting a
diversion from his difficulties in Egypt, laid siege
to St John d’Acre, strongly defended by the
English with help of Jazzar. The future Emperor attempted,
in vain, to obtain the help of the young Emir of Beirut
– still under the sway of Jazzar- Bechir Kassem
Omar, who was later to become Bechir II. Bonaparte
had to abandon the campaign and go back to France,
with his army decimated and a victim of the plague,
while Bechir tried to consolidate his position in
relation to the Sublime Porte, though unsuccessfully.
In 1799, he was obliged to go into exile in Egypt
where he was received by Mohamed Ali, the Victory.
On his return to Lebanon, the Emir Bechir progressively
eliminated or became reconciled with the feudal chiefs
in the interests of unification and the domestic peace
which was so obviously necessary. He succeeded in
this by a number of means – some of which were
extremely cruel, for although like Fakhreddine he
had very acute political, sense, he did not have his
liberal outlook. However, the forty years of his reign
were marked by the increasing development of national
consciousness on the part of the various communities
and the increasing significance of the country in
international affairs. Domestic achievements were
numerous, all of them dominated by the superb place
at Beit ed-Dine, where the Emir held court like the
princes of the Renaissance. The reign itself, bound
up with the destinies of the Viceroy of Egypt, was
fertile in events- the intervention in Syria, the
war against the Sublime Porte and the Pasha of Acre,
the Egyptian occupation of Lebanon, the fall of Damascus,
the peace of Kutahia, the Druze revolt at Leja, the
battle of Nizib (1839) during which the Sultan’s
forces were utterly routed, and finally the Treaty
of London followed by the landing of Anglo-Turkish
troops at Jounieh and the Emir’s surrender to
them after his own troops had revolted.
After his final exile in Malta, Bechir II abdicated
in favour of Bechir III, who had been proclaimed by
the Anglo-Ottoman forces. However, owing to the unpopularity
of the new Emir, there was further domestic conflict.
Conflicts of clan and religious interest broke out
more violently than before, secretly incited by the
Turks, who finally resorted to direct rule. This deplorable
policy made things even worse, and internal disorder
deteriorated into utter anarchy and civil war. At
the request of foreign powers, a French expeditionary
force landed at Beirut in September 1860, and an international
commission was set up under Sultan Fuad Pasha’s
special envoy to restore order and peace. Then began
the regime of ‘‘Mutassarifats’’
(prefectures), the first prefect, Daud pasha, being
designated at the time of the signature of the 1861
Protocol.
The
Ottomans leave
He was succeeded by a number of other ‘‘Mutassarifins’’,
none of whom had his authority and competence, for
Daud Pasha knew how to restore order in this enfeebled
Lebanon and reorganize its government. This was the
great public works period but also that of a serious
economic crisis which was to cause thousands of Lebanese
to immigrate to more or less distant countries, where
they established colonies which are known throughout
the world.
It was also from this period that dates the renaissance
of Arab literature, the creation of important universities,
the emergence of the Lebanese press and the awakening
of Arab nationalism – elements which play an
important part in contemporary affairs.
When the 1914 war broke out, Turkey fought against
the Allies, and Lebanon was occupied by the troops
of Jemal Pasha. The first defeats he suffered at the
Suez Canal made him turn against the Arab nationalists
and the populations of Lebanon and Syria. This was
the beginning of a period of bloodthirsty repression
and a terrible famine, which began with the hanging
of Lebanese patriots in the market square of Beirut
now known as the place of Martyrs. At the same period
there was signed in London the Sykes-Picot Convention
dividing the Middle East into five Zones, Lebanon
being included in the zone placed under French mandate.
This Convention was ratified by the Versailles Treaty,
and Clemenceau appointed General Gouraud the first
High Commissioner of France in the Levant. This, however,
was accompanied by troubles, particularly on the part
of Syria (Battle of Mayssalun Against Faisal). However,
the Decree of 31 August 1920 signed by Gouraud proclaimed
the formation of the state of Grand Lebanon –
an independent country with its capital at Beirut.
General Gouraud was subsequently replaced by Weygand
and then by Sarrail who had to deal with a revolt
by the Druzes in 1925. He was succeeded by Senator
Henri de Jouvenel, who proclaimed the Lebanese Constitution
and appointed Charles Debbas as first President of
the Republic (1926). He was followed by Habib el-Saad,
who was in turn succeeded by Emile Eddé, who
signed the Franco-Lebanese Treaty of 1936 with High
Commissioner de Martel.
Independence
and reconstruction
However, it was necessary to wait for the Second World
War and the occupation of Lebanon by Anglo-French
forces for the proclamation of Lebanese independence
to become effective. Following the elections of 1943,
which made Bechara el-Khury President of the Republic
and Riad el-Solh Prime Minister, French rule was rejected
and a ‘‘resistance government’’
formed. It was then that the famous National Pact,
which is the basis of existing Lebanese institutions,
was proclaimed. General de Gaulle sent General Catroux
to restore order and finally recognize the independence
of Lebanon (having begun by removing Alfred Naccache,
its first president) the results were confirmed; by
the election of 22 November 1943, a date which has
now become the national holiday. The French mandate,
under which many errors had been committed but a great
deal achieved to the advantage of the new state, came
to an end.
There followed a period of stabilization and reconstruction
under such pioneers of independence as Bechara el-Khury
and Riad el-Solh, whose work was pursued by presidents
Camille Chamoun, Fuad Shehab, Charles Hélou
and Soleiman Frangié, the present Head of State
who is intent on pursuing the road pointed out by
his predecessors. In spite of the 1958 troubles and
the difficulties arising from the Israeli-Arab conflict,
Lebanon, which has belonged to the Arab League since
1945, is confident of its historic destiny as part
of the great Arab nation, while remaining fully open
to the Western world, the third world and the developing
countries of the entire planet.
Lebanese
institutions
We cannot give here an exhaustive list of the Lebanese
characteristics which contribute to the charm of the
country and, sometimes, to the surprise of visitors.
But it is essential to mention some of these which
will enable you to understand and therefore like the
country better.
Lebanon, of course, has been known for a long time
as ‘‘the Switzerland of the Middle East’’.
This description applies not only to its shape, situation
and relief, but also to its economic liberalism which
has made Beirut one the most important banking and
commercial centers of the world - and not only of
the Arab world. What ever may be the mysteries of
Lebanese economics and statistics, one thing is certain.
A great deal of important international business is
handled - or even initiated - in Beirut, and the importance
of the city as a market has been increased owing to
the new Arab wealth accruing from oil. It is in this
field of activities that the fantastic flexibility
of the Lebanese and his business sense resembling
that of the ancient Phoenicians manifest themselves.
While agriculture is still the chief traditional resource
of the country, we should not ignore the development
of industry which, in 1974, accounted for exports
totaling more than 800 million Lebanese Pounds (the
Lebanese Pound is equal to about two Francs).
So far as parliamentary institutions are concerned,
the most important feature is the distribution of
parliamentary power according to religious confessions.
The 99 seats are shared as follows – 30 Maronites,
20 Sunnites, 19 Shiites, 11 Greek Orthodox, 6 Greek
Catholics, 6 Druzes, 4 Armenian Orthodox, 1 Armenian
Catholics, 1 Protestant and one representative of
the other minorities. This inter-confessional balance
is also maintained in the public services and government
departments, with the obvious purpose of maintaining
a balance, which is also a guarantee of unity.
The Head of state, who is traditionally a Maronite
is elected for six years by an absolute majority vote
of deputies, while the Prime Minister, who is appointed
by him, is traditionally a Sunnite. As is evident,
tradition plays a very important part in Lebanese
life, and not only in the political field. Striking
examples may by found in every day life where both
public and private ceremonies, such as marriages and
burials are concerned. Such ceremonies are often accompanied
by shots fired in the air as a sign of joy or mourning
(a feature incidentally to be found among other Mediterranean
societies).
University
and cultural life
However, it would be quite wrong to suppose that the
whole of Lebanon devotes itself to nothing but business.
Another tradition – the one dating back to the
famous Law School of Beirut – should also be
remembered. What with universities proper and university
institutions, there are no less than seven establishments
in Beirut and its suburbs with a total of nearly sixteen
thousand students in a wide variety of faculties.
The Lebanese University alone has of 6.000 and has,
in addition to the traditional faculties, an advanced
teachers’ training school, an institute of social
science and a school of fine arts. The Arab University,
affiliated to that of Alexandria, also has a civil
engineering institute and a total of nearly 1.500
students. Nearly as many attend the courses of the
Ecole Superieure des letters attached to the French
cultural mission (this includes a centre of mathematical
studies), while the American University crowds 2.500
students into its various faculties installed in an
American-style campus - an oasis of verdure in the
concrete desert of Beirut. The Jesuit University of
saint Joseph, which provides teaching in all subjects
including Engineering, Law and Medicine, prepares
3.000 students to face the future of Lebanese life.
Lastly, the Kaslik University Center includes a faculty
of theology and philosophy to which has just been
added an institute devoted to architecture and the
fine arts, while the Haigazian College (650 students)
has an institute of Armenology - which, incidentally,
is not the only one of its kind - in addition to the
conventional faculties. It should be noted that all
these figures have increased by 200% since 1965 or
thereabouts.
We shall not go into details regarding primary and
secondary education. This country which invented the
alphabet has the highest percentage of school attendance
in the East – a tribute to its past! Foreign
schools flourish in complete freedom, and the Press,
in accordance with the complexity of the rest of Lebanese
life, consists of more than forty two newspapers appearing
in four languages! This should suffice to indicate
the cultural level and the quality of writers, poets,
historians and essayists, many of whom enjoy international
reputations.
A few days passed in Lebanese society would be sufficient
to convince you - eloquently - of this!
Decree
N. 2385 of 17/1/1924 as amended by law N. 76 of 3/4/1999
( articles 2, 5, 15, 49 and 85 ) lays down as follows:
The author of a literary or artistic work, by the
very fact of authorship, has absolute right of ownership
over the work, without obligation of recourse to formal
procedures . The author will himself enjoy the benefit
of exploitation of his work, and he possesses exclusive
rights of publication and of the reproduction under
any form whatsoever. Whether the work in question
comes under the public domain or not those persons
will be liable to imprisonment for a period of one
to three years and to fine of between five and fifty
million Lebanese pounds, or to either one of these
penalties, who 1-will have appended or caused to be
appended a usurped name on a literary or artistic
work; 2-will have fraudulently imitated the signature
or trademark adopted by an author, with a view to
deceiving the buyer; 3-will have counterfeited a literary
or artistic work; 4-or will have knowingly sold, received,
or put on sale or into circulation a work which is
counterfeit or signed with a forged signature. The
punishment will be increased in the event of repetition.
